There was a time when all canoes were made of natural materials. Today’s aluminum, fiberglass, and plastic canoes are descendants of the birchbark, animal skin, reed, and dugout craft of the early Americans. About 1870, men found that canvas stretched over a wooden shell made a light, strong, and beautiful canoe, and for 8 decades the canvas canoe was king. After World War II, canoes made of aluminum captured much of the market. Quality canoes are now made from a variety of synthetic materials.

Even though canoes today are made of different materials and in different styles and models, the names of the parts on all canoes are fairly standard. Canoeing terms are derived from the larger ships of the ocean. For example, starboard and port mean the right and left side of the canoe or boat. (These terms have a lot of history, and have changed over time. The port side used to be called larboard. The larboard side was always against the dock when the ship was in port, and over time the shorter word became the preferred term.) When you are facing forward in your canoe, port is on your left and starboard is on your right. The terms "right" and "left" are, of course, just as good.

For moving about or placing gear in the canoe, forward means towards the front end and aft means towards the back. Amidships is the center, and bow and stern name the front and back of the canoe.

Sides and bottom are obvious, and keel is the reinforcing fin that runs along the bottom of the canoe. Ribs and planking (in a canvas canoe) reinforce the wall of the canoe. Gunwale (pronounced "gunnel") is the top edge or outside rim of the canoe. Thwarts (pronounced "thorts") are the braces that reach across the top of the canoe.

For lake canoeing, certain features of the canoe should be considered. The bow and stern should be low to offer less surface to the wind. A small keel will lessen sideways drift. A rounded bottom will increase speed, but this is also less stable. Good lines are important, but only actual testing against other canoes will determine which is the best for your purpose. Look for a fine bow and stern to cut easily through the waves, but with some flare to push water away.

It is important to know the number of pounds of cargo and people that a canoe can safely carry. This information is usually provided by the manufacturer. If you wonder whether your canoe is overloaded, check the freeboard. If there are less than 6 inches between the surface of the water and the lowest point on your canoe’s gunwales, your canoe is not safe for paddling. The U. S. Coast Guard measures capacity by loading the canoe until it has 6 inches of freeboard. The sides should be high enough to keep waves out. The depth of the canoe, from center thwart to bottom, should be 12 inches or more for all canoes except the smallest 12-footers. Freight canoes may be 2 feet deep or more.

Most lake or flatwater canoes are 16 to 18 feet in length. Depending on lake and wind conditions, a flatwater canoe could be as short as 12 feet or as long as 36 feet. The big Montreal canoes that fur traders used on the Great Lakes were 35 feet long—and made of birchbark!

Paddles can be made of wood, fiberglass, metal, plastic, or a combination of these materials. Wood was the original material, and many feel that it is still the best, but good wooden paddles are becoming hard to find. A flatwater paddle is usually slightly flexible, although some canoeists prefer rigid paddles.

Paddle length depends on how long you and your arms are. If your paddle reaches between your outstretched arms with the grip in the palm of one hand and the tip in the other, then it is about right. Another way to judge the correct paddle length is to put the tip of the paddle on your toe. The grip should reach up to about your nose. The important thing is that the paddle feels comfortable to you, and the entire blade is in the water at the lowest point of your most comfortable power stroke. If your hand on the throat of the paddle is dipping into the water on each stroke, the paddle may be too long. The weight of the paddle is also a matter of preference, but remember that you’re going to be swinging it about 20 times a minute. A strong, lightweight paddle will probably take you farther and longer.

Paddle blade width varies from 5 to 8 inches. The average paddle blade is about 5 inches wide. Wider blades are used for racing because they provide more power. For typical flatwater canoeing, a 6-inch blade is about right.

The paddle grip should fit your hand smoothly and comfortably. There are a variety of paddle grips available. Choose the one that you find most comfortable. On wooden paddles, the grip can be sanded or whittled to individual preference. Most importantly, the grip should be smooth so as not to scratch or blister the palm during prolonged use. A wooden paddle grip should be sanded periodically to keep it smooth.

Paddle styles take their names from the colorful vocabulary of our ancestral canoeists.

Painter is the nautical name for the lines secured to the bow and stern of the canoe. These lines have many uses for securing the craft at a dock or shoreline, or for towing. The painter should be long enough on each end to tie back to the nearest thwart with a clove hitch. They can also be coiled and secured to the top portion of the breastplate. They should never be left loose in the bottom of the canoe where the paddler could become entangled.

Kneeling pads should be used when paddling in the kneeling position. Pads can rest in the bottom of the canoe or can be secured to the paddler’s legs. Several types of kneeling pads are available from gardening and sports shops. You can also make your own from cloth, styrofoam, or other materials.

Kneeling pads should not slip on the bottom of the canoe, should not soak up water, and should float. To make your own kneepads, put two layers of sponge rubber in a piece of tire tube, turned inside out. Seal the edges with a rubber cement or have them vulcanized at a tire store. Cover it with cloth, since rubber against bare skin can chafe and cause blisters. Or, fill an old hot-water bottle with sawdust, then wrap it in cloth. If you are fastening a pad to each knee, make sure you can unfasten it easily and quickly.

When you pick up the canoe and carry it over land from one lake or stream to another, you are portaging. The trail you follow is the portage. Canoe yokes come in handy when you are carrying the canoe on your shoulders. A number of padded yokes are available and will fit a standard canoe. You can also improvise yokes using canoe paddles.

The stability and handling of lightweight, shallow-draft craft such as canoes are affected by weight and weight distribution. If your canoe is trim, you run less risk of overturning and will be able to maneuver more easily.

A canoe is trim if it is balanced from end to end and side to side. If the canoe is trim, the center of gravity is over the keel. The center of gravity should also be below the gunwales and as near the bottom as possible.

Weight that lowers the center of gravity of the craft and adds stability is called ballast. A properly loaded canoe is trim with the gear serving as ballast. But too much weight can be a problem in wind and waves, or if the canoe lists (leans sideways) as a result of collision or movement in the canoe. Total cargo, including gear and people, should never leave less than 6 inches of freeboard (distance between the surface of the water and the gunwale amidships).

When packing your canoe, tie small items and loose gear such as shoes, camera, and fishing tackle to the canoe. Secure larger items like tenting, bed-rolls, and food packs to prevent shifting.

Assuming that your canoe is trim before boarding, the heavier member of the paddling team should be in the stern. An exception to this rule may occur when paddling on a windy day. The heavier end of the canoe should be turned into the wind. If you are heading into the wind, then the bow should be slightly heavier than the stern. The wind will always tend to turn the heavier end of the canoe into the wind. This is called the weather vane effect.

The paddling positions favored by skilled canoeists not only increase stability by lowering the center of gravity, but also permit the paddler to use his thigh and trunk strength more efficiently in conjunction with his arms.

Most canoes today have bow and stern seats. Seats add some comfort for the inexperienced paddler, or on long treks, but they also raise the center of gravity and reduce stability. Paddling from the seat is acceptable on quiet waters, but on windy or rough water—or when racing or doing complicated maneuvers—otily the novice would fail to use a kneeling position. Also, when the canoe is heavily loaded and has minimum freeboard, paddlers should always kneel.

It is easier to paddle from a kneeling position, since you can use your thigh and trunk muscles along with your arm and shoulder muscles. You can get a wider reach and a more powerful stroke, too. On a seat, only the arm and shoulder muscles are used—and they can get tired and sore fast. In a kneeling position, you and your canoe become almost one. You can better "feel" every move your canoe makes.

Kneeling positions are the same whether you are paddling alone, with a buddy, in the bow, or in the stern. The position used most often for recreational canoeing is the cruising position. You kneel on both knees and rest your buttocks against a thwart or the forward edge of a seat. A variation of the cruising position is kneeling on one knee, often called the relief posi

tion because it is frequently alternated with the normal cruising position. The paddler rests against a thwart or a seat while kneeling on one knee and extending the other leg forward. He should brace the forward foot by placing it against the edge of a rib. Always kneel on the knee that is on the paddling side.

The upright kneeling position is one in which the paddler kneels on both knees, with thighs and trunk erect, and faces slightly toward his paddling side. This position has the distinct advantage of allowing the paddler to change his location in the canoe, regardless of thwart or seat location. It’s a good relief from other positions, makes paddling easier if there is wind, and allows a more powerful stroke.

The high kneeling or racing position is used in canoe racing or for covering distance in the shortest time with the least effort. The position is essentially on one knee and the opposite foot, with the body erect and facing slightly toward the paddling side, rather than directly forward. The leg on the kneeling side extends diagonally across the canoe with the bottom surface of the paddler’s toes, or the bottom of the toe of a soft-soled shoe, gripping the bottom of the canoe. The other leg is extended forward with only a slight bend at the knee. The foot is placed firmly on the bottom of the canoe, and the toes are pointed diagonally toward the center of the craft.

One other kneeling position is called Indian style or "sitting on the heels." It is not very practical for a small paddler in a high-walled aluminum canoe, but was probably ideal for the shallow dugout or bark canoe. The paddler kneels on the bottom of the canoe and sits back on the inside of his heels. This puts weight right on the bottom of the canoe, gives the paddler maximum control, and virtually makes him part of his craft. It is a very good position for single paddling, but the beginner will find it hard on his knees and ankles until he gets used to it. It should be used for short periods with a firm kneeling pad until you have become accustomed to paddling Indian style.

Tandem canoeing is what you do with a companion—one person in the bow, one person in the stern. Although other people may be carried as passengers, the paddling is done by the bowman and the sternman. You should master the paddling skills of each position in tandem before attempting to learn the single man paddling skills.

Good canoeing skills are needed from the moment you first touch the canoe. This first contact should be on land.

All canoes should be properly stored out of the water, upside down on a rack that holds them clear of the ground. Ideally, the rack would be shaded and at least one and one-half canoe lengths from the water. Sun protection is essential if your canoe is made of wood, canvas, or other natural materials. Aluminum canoes are not damaged by the sun, but can quickly become too hot to handle on a sunny day. Canoes made of synthetic materials will benefit from sun protection, and the manufacturers’ instructions should be followed carefully on this point.

The first task is to safely remove the canoe from its rack and carry it to the edge of the water. The best arrangement is for the canoe to be kept on a rack with open ground beside it where the canoe can be set down. Another common way of racking canoes is to have them side-by-side, without space, except when a canoe has been removed from the rack and one space is open. These two rack arrangements require different techniques in lifting and carrying the canoe.

Even if you are big enough to lift and carry a canoe by yourself, it is always easier, safer, and smarter to use a companion when lifting and carrying a canoe from its rack. Before removing a canoe from the rack, you should determine that the ground area is clear of any rocks, stakes, or other objects that could be a hazard for you or that could damage the bottom of the canoe. If you are removing a canoe from a rack where there is open ground beside the canoe, begin with one person at each end of the canoe. Lift the canoe, holding securely at each end, and step sideways until you are clear of the rack and there is open ground under the canoe. Now carefully turn the canoe until it is upright. Before turning, you should communicate with your companion to be sure both people know which way the canoe is going to be turned. It is usually wisest to roll the canoe in the direction away from the canoe rack. Then set the canoe down carefully, right side up, on the ground.

If your canoe is racked side-by-side with others, without open ground at either side, you will have to use the lift and walk technique. Begin with one person at each end of the canoe, facing each other. Lift the canoe, holding securely at each end, and turn it carefully until it is right-side up. Carefully set the canoe back down on the rack. Move to opposite sides of the canoe by the breastplates, with both people facing the water or the direction in which the canoe is to be moved. Each person then grasps the inside edge of the breastplate or the gunwale near the breastplate and lifts the canoe off the rack. Now walk forward, with the person at the rear stepping carefully over the two low beams of the rack, until the canoe is clear of the rack and can be put down. Move slowly and cautiously, for a fall here could do serious damage to you and the canoe.

If turning the canoe while holding it in the air is awkward or the individuals are too small to perform this particular maneuver, you can set the canoe down, upside down, and then turn it carefully on the ground. Obviously, in order to turn it after you set it down, you’re going to need additional clear area so that you can roll it from the upside down position to right side up.

Put your equipment into the canoe, including paddles and personal items, while the canoe is on the ground near the rack. Do not heavily load the canoe at this point, as this will make it much more difficult to carry to the water. You also do not want to load the canoe on the ground in such a way that it will flex and be damaged.

To carry the canoe to the water, you and your companion should stand on opposite sides of the canoe, in line with the edge of the breastplates or the first thwart from the bow and stern. Grasp under the breastplate or at the thwart and stand up together, lifting the canoe with your legs and back and keeping your arms straight. Then walk forward until the end of the canoe closest to the water is at the water’s edge. Set the canoe down carefully.

At this time, you should decide whether the canoe is going to be launched stern first or bow first. The most stable way to launch and board the canoe from a beach is stern first. If you are going to be launching into a current or into a wind, or if the beach area is arranged such that a turn will be difficult after the launch is completed, a bow-first launch may be appropriate.

If you are going to make a stern-first launch, and the canoe is sitting at the edge of the water with the stern nearest the water, you and your companion should now stand facing each other across the canoe at the midship position. Grasp the canoe on both sides at the gunwale and lift it off the ground, using your legs and back and keeping your arms straight. You should then walk sideways until you are standing at the water’s edge or in shallow water right at the edge of beach. At this point, pass the canoe toward the water, hand-over-hand, holding on to the gunwales until the stern of the canoe is supported by the water. Continue to push the canoe out, hand-over-hand, standing in the same position until you and your companion are both holding the breastplate and the canoe is supported on the water. The bow of the canoe should be set gently on the water. Make sure that the canoe is floating free with nothing under it except water. The bowman then remains at the canoe, with his hand on the breastplate or bow, while the sternman fetches any equipment that still needs to be loaded into the canoe.

Before boarding the canoe, the gear should be placed in such a way that it presents no hazard to someone boarding, and will not be broken if someone loses his balance and falls or steps on it accidentally. Paddles should be laid flat in the canoe, not leaning on athwart. If the canoe is in water shallow enough to stand in, the sternman should walk out beside the canoe to place and secure the remaining equipment. lf.you’re launching onto deep water, the canoe can be pulled alongside the shore for loading and boarding.

Up to this point, the launch procedure from a beach would be the same whether you were launching bow first or stern first. The procedures are quite different, however, when it comes to getting yourself into the canoe. When launching stern first from the beach, the bowman is in charge of the boarding procedure. He begins by pointing the stern out at right angles to the beach, making sure that the canoe is floating free of the bottom and any rocks. In a very shallow area, it may be necessary for the bowman to walk out into the water a few feet in order to get the canoe clear. It is most important that the bowman check to be sure he cannot see light under the canoe, indicating that the canoe is "bridging" between two points. A common cause of structural damage in a canoe is when someone steps into a canoe that is "bridged" and puts weight on the keel or ribs without water supporting the canoe.

When the bowman is ready to begin the boarding procedure, he kneels at the bow of the canoe, with one knee on either side of the bow, and grasps cross-armed across the breastplate. Holding securely in this position will prevent the canoe from tipping to either side when his companion steps in. You may also find it helpful to use a paddle to help hold the canoe. You do this by placing the tip of the paddle in the water against the bottom with the blade flat against the side of the canoe. If there is a breeze or current, put the paddle on the downwind or downstream side of the canoe. Rest the loom of the paddle on your shoulder with the grip extending past your neck; then wrap your arm over the loom and across to hold the breastplate near the opposite side of the canoe. Your other arm reaches across the breastplate from the other side. This grip, with the help of your knees on either side of the canoe, allows you to control the side-to-side tipping of the canoe. It also helps you keep the canoe pointed out from the bank. The exact position of the paddle and hands is not as important as the bowman being confident that he has a secure hold on the canoe, and will be able to control the movement of the canoe while his companion boards.

When the bowman is in position and ready, he tells the sternman to get in. The sternman should walk into the water to a spot about even with the bow thwart and then turn and face the bowman. Leaning forward and placing a hand on each gunwale, the sternman steps in with the leg nearest the canoe and places his foot on the keel while keeping his weight momentarily on his leg that remains in the water. When his foot is placed firmly on the keel, he shifts his weight to that foot and to his hands on the gunwales of the canoe, and lifts his other leg into the canoe. As soon as he has both feet in the canoe, he should lower his back end with his head up so that his center of gravity is low in the canoe, and he is facing the bowman holding the canoe. On signal from the bowman, the sternman then backs along the keel of the canoe, stepping over the thwarts as he gets to them, and keeping his weight low with his hands on the gunwales. When the sternman gets to his position, he should kneel, get settled, and check his balance. He then puts his paddle into the water, against the bottom of the lake, with the blade flat against the side of the canoe and the loom straight up. The sternman is now going to brace the canoe so that the bowman can release his hold at the bow and get aboard. To brace the canoe in the stern position, the sternman grasps the throat of the paddle that is in the water against the canoe and hooks his thumb over the gunwale. With his other hand on the grip, he has made a post in the water and secured the canoe to that post. When he is ready in this position, he tells the bowman to board.

The bowman begins boarding by releasing his hold on the canoe and walking in shallow water to a spot even with his position in the canoe. After stowing his paddle flat in the bottom of the canoe, and out of his way, he grasps the gunwales, just as the sternman did, and steps into the canoe one foot at a time, shifting his weight in the same manner as described for the sternman. After he is in the canoe, the bowman backs up, stepping over the thwarts until he is in a position just aft of midship. This will raise the bow of the canoe off the bottom in the shallows near the edge of the water. With the bowman in this position, and kneeling low, the sternman releases his post hold of the canoe and makes several short reverse strokes to back the canoe away from the beach. Once clear of the beach, the sternman stops paddling and holds his position steady while the bowman moves forward to his position and gets settled, retrieves his paddle, and is ready to begin paddling.

When launching bow first from the beach, the roles are reversed with respect to who gets in first and who steadies the canoe. The sternman will take the position at the beach, bracing the canoe and giving instructions to the bowman about boarding. As before, both paddlers board the canoe facing the bow, except that the bow is now facing away from the shore. This means that the bowman will enter and move forward. He will then steady the canoe with the post position while the sternman enters and moves forward to just fore of midships so that the canoe can be cleared from the shallow beach area. Once clear of the beach, the sternman will then move backward to his position, and the two-man team is ready to begin paddling.

Flatwater paddling is simply a matter of reaching forward, grabbing the water, and pulling the canoe along. As simple as it sounds, the first-time paddler usually experiences a good deal of frustration and may conclude that paddling is hard work. The more you understand about the paddling art, however, the easier it becomes and the more confident you will be regarding which stroke or maneuver produces the desired result.

Several basic principles of paddling should be kept in mind. First, once you have grabbed hold of the water on a paddling stroke, don’t let go until the stroke is completed. Second, minimize water and wind resistance. Third, make use of your momentum. Finally, avoid wasted effort.

The first principal, grab and hold, is important for the power strokes, and is the most important factor in sculling and single-man pivots. You need to know which side of your blade is doing.the pushing against the water. If you change the side of the paddle that is doing the pushing in the middle of a stroke, you obviously lose your power and control and have to use a lot more energy and effort to make up for that loss. This point also comes into play when you are developing your long, smooth, steady stroke—as opposed to a short, choppy stroke that is constantly releasing water and causing you to make another grab.

Avoiding resistance is not simply a matter of cosmetic appearance. A failure to take wind and water resistance into account can convert an easy 30-minute paddle into an hour-long struggle against the elements. We have already considered one effect of wind resistance when we discussed trim and balance and heading into the wind. When paddling into a strong wind, the bow should be pointed squarely into the wind, or the additional resistance of the wind against the side of the canoe will make controlling the direction of the canoe very difficult. If you get caught in a strong wind, the heavier end of the canoe should be pointed into the wind and you should head for the nearest shore to take the canoe off the water until weather conditions change.

Another source of wind resistance, and potential water resistance, frequently overlooked by the inexperienced paddler is the paddle. If the paddle is held out of the water, with the blade flat against the wind, it acts as a sail. Also, if the blade is held flat against the air as it comes forward to begin another stroke, it has more wind resistance, which adds to the work. You also risk being slapped by a wave, which can certainly add to the work, or even take the paddle out of the hands of the paddler. To minimize the wind resistance and the risk of losing the paddle to a wave, the paddle is feathered as it is swung through the air from the end of one stroke to begin another stroke. Feathering is done by turning the blade flat and parallel with the surface of the water so that it slices through the air. You want your blade to cut through the air like an airplane wing, and to cut through any wave that may slap at it while you are swinging it back to begin another stroke.

Another principal to keep in mind is momentum. The purpose of paddling is to get you moving, and once you are moving you have momentum. You don’t want to throw away the momentum you’ve achieved every time you want to change direction or execute a maneuver (other than stopping). Ideally, you use the momentum to assist in your maneuver, whatever it may be. For example, if you are moving forward and want to turn to the port, it is far better to turn underway rather than stopping and restarting your forward movement. The paddling strokes you are going to learn can be classed in two categories: (1) those that permit you to maneuver the craft without losing momentum, and (2) those that are used to reduce forward momentum, or when the canoe is stationary. Those maneuvers that fall in the first category are not to be done in such a way that momentum is needlessly sacrificed.

Now consider the fourth principal in paddling—wasted effort. Certainly you don’t want to work harder than you have to, and the first three principles are all concerned with wasted effort. When you learn the strokes correctly, you will understand that each technique has been developed to avoid wasted effort. If you do something different from each technique, you not only look sloppy, but you are wasting energy. One good example is when you swing your paddle forward from the end of a stroke to begin the next stroke. A paddle has weight. If you swing it low above the water, you minimize the amount of strength that is being used. If you lift it high and swing it in an arc, you are obviously wasting the effort and strength that is required to lift the paddle high and swing it through a greater distance. Conserve your energy, keep the paddle low, and travel the shortest distance between two points—a straight line.

Before learning the individual strokes, you should become familiar with stroke terminology. Every paddling stroke has four parts called (1) the catch, (2) the pull (or push), (3) the feather, and (4) the recovery. The catch is when you first grab hold or make contact with the water. The pull (or push) is the working part of the stroke that should accomplish your objective—to make progress or do a particular maneuver. The feather is the twist of the wrist that aligns the blade of the paddle with the surface of the water to reduce resistance. The recovery is the term used to describe what happens between the time you complete the stroke and when you are ready to start another stroke. Remember catch, pull, feather, and recover—you will find them in every stroke.

Because the bow paddler can’t see what the sternman is doing, there are certain commands given by the sternman to coordinate the efforts of the two paddlers. In effect, the sternman is the captain of the ship and is in charge of the paddling activity (with some exceptions). The first command is prepare to give way, which means that both paddlers should assume the position ready to make the catch for the first stroke. The command give way means to begin paddling. Let it run means to stop paddling and let the canoe coast. In the run position, the paddlers lay the paddle across the gunwales with the blade extended out over the water in the feathered position. The command hold water means to slow the canoe’s momentum or to hold it in position. The stop command means exactly what it says. (The hold water and stop maneuvers will be discussed with other strokes that are not intended to maintain forward momentum.) The sternman may also call for specific bow strokes if he needs help in maneuvering the craft. The bowman is not without responsibility, however. Obviously, the bowman is expected to watch the water in front of the canoe and to make whatever maneuvers, and give whatever commands, are appropriate to avoid hitting obstacles such as rocks or logs. In addition, the bowman sets the pace for the strokes. The sternman matches the timing and speed of the bowman’s stroke so that the strokes are done at the same time. When the strokes are done together, the canoe is much easier to control and to maneuver, and there is considerably less wasted effort.

The first three strokes to learn in the bow position are strokes used to achieve and maintain forward progress or momentum. If you are halting your forward progress in making turns using these strokes, then you are not executing the strokes properly.

Before doing your first stroke, be sure you are holding the paddle correctly. If you are paddling on the port side, place your right hand on the grip of the paddle and your left hand on the throat. To be sure you are holding the grip correctly with your right hand, begin by laying your hand on top of the grip, palm down, with fingers outstretched. The paddle end should touch the palm of your hand right at the knuckles, with the knuckles in line with the top of the grip. You then simply close your hand so that your fingers are on one side of the grip, the base of your hand is on the opposite side, and your thumb wraps around the side of the grip.

To check the placement of your hand on the lower part of the paddle, extend your arm down and slightly away from your body with the hand open, palm down, and fingers spread. Now lay the throat of the paddle between your thumb and index finger, with the blade of the paddle turned parallel with a line between the tip of your thumb and the tip of your index finger. Now simply close your hand around the paddle so that your thumb wraps around the throat and your fingers are just below the throat, extending onto the upper part of the blade.

The bow stroke, or power stroke, is the simplest and one of the most important strokes in canoeing. It is also a good stroke to learn in order to understand certain principles that apply to other strokes.

The purpose of the bow stroke is to move the canoe forward. Paddling on the port side from a full kneeling position, the bowman leans slightly forward from the waist and extends his left arm (with his left hand on the paddle throat) forward and slightly down, keeping the elbow straight. The right hand is on the grip, with fingers facing forward, just in front of the chin. This is the "prepare to give way" or "ready" position for the "catch." The blade is perpendicular to the center line of the canoe, and extended alongside the bow The catch is at a point as far forward as the bowman can reach comfortably without overbalancing, and very close to the side of the canoe.

The "pull" is down and back along the side of the canoe, with the right hand pushing forward on the grip while the left arm, with elbow straight, swings down and back in an arc. The grip hand supplies most of the power by pushing out in a motion like a boxer’s jab. The left arm serves primarily as a pivot point and guides the paddle in a straight line along the side of the canoe. To get the most power with the least effort, the stroke should be very close to the canoe with the blade almost straight down in the water.

Why the straight elbow? Certainly it looks good, but cosmetics do not move the canoe. For best results, the paddle has to be in the water. (Air paddling does not give much for the effort.) When you bend the elbow during the pull of the stroke, you lift the paddle and end your stroke too early. Remember, once you grab the water, don’t let go. The paddle should come out of the water at the end of a full arc, with the left arm straight and fully extended behind the paddler. If you bend your arm and lift the paddle too early, you will have to make more strokes, and consume more energy, to cover the same distance. Also, when you bend your elbow and raise the paddle during the pull, you are actually pulling up on the water, or "shoveling:’ Lifting the water wastes energy and actually slows the momentum gained during the stroke by pushing the canoe down in the water. The idea is to pull the canoe forward by pulling the water past the canoe.

At the end of the pull, roll the grip by turning the wrist so that the finger side of the grip is down. This will feather the blade of the paddle for recovery.

(The position of the hands never changes during power strokes. All movement of the grip hand is intended to move the paddle blade.) The recovery arc is to the side, left elbow straight, with the blade tip approximately 4 inches above the water surface. Recover in the feathered position all the way back to the ready point, and then roll the grip hand by turning the wrist so that the paddle blade is again perpendicular to the center line of the canoe. Now you are ready for your next stroke.

The quarter sweep stroke turns the bow of the canoe away from the side on which the bowman is paddling. The name of the stroke accurately describes the way it is done.

The quarter sweep begins at the same point as the bow stroke. The difference is the blade angle. For the quarter sweep, the blade is turned straight up and down, perpendicular to the surface of the water. This stroke is called a "sweep" because the blade is going to travel along the top of the water, extended out in a wide arc as far as the paddler can reach. If the stroke were to be continued in one direction all the way around back to its starting point, it would draw a full round circle on the surface of the water. The term "quarter" is applied to this stroke because the full length of the stroke is one quarter of a circle.

The stroke ends at a position straight out from the side of the canoe, even with the kneeling position of the bowman. For best results, the stroke must end at this point because sweeping through the second quarter of the circle would add little additional turning effect for the effort. The first quarter pushes the bow away from the side on which the bowman is paddling; the second quarter would tend to pull the entire canoe to the side on which the bowman is paddling.

Now to put the stroke together: Begin with a catch, with the hand on the throat of the paddle extended forward as in the bow stroke, pull through the quarter sweep with one side of the blade down in the water and the other side near the surface or slightly out of the water. When the pull is even with your kneeling position, feather as in the bow stroke and recover to your starting point.

When you are under way and have good forward momentum, one quarter sweep in between power strokes will quickly move the bow away from the side on which you are paddling. Two or three quick quarter strokes will easily accomplish a full right-angle turn.

The diagonal draw is used to turn the bow of the canoe toward the side on which the bowman is paddling. Again, the name of the stroke is descriptive of the way it is done. The path of the stroke through the water makes a diagonal line to the side of the canoe, and the effect of the stroke is to draw the water up to and under the canoe.

The catch position for the diagonal draw stroke is at a point exactly in the middle of the path of the quarter sweep stroke. The bowman extends the paddle as far as he can reach without overbalancing in this diagonal direction, with the inside of the blade facing him. The blade catches the water and pulls the water in a diagonal line straight to the paddler as though he were trying to pull the water into his lap. Just before the paddle makes contact with the side of the canoe, the diagonal pull ends and the paddle is feathered out of the water and recovered back to the catch position for the next diagonal draw.

If the draw is done effectively, the blade can be turned to the bow stroke position at the end of the diagonal pull and the stroke completed with the second half of the bow stroke. One strong diagonal draw that is finished with the pull of the bow stroke will easily turn the canoe to the side on which the bowman is paddling without losing forward momentum. Two or three quick, strong diagonal draw strokes will turn the bow to a full right-angle turn while maintaining forward momentum.

An accomplished paddler can paddle with equal ease and strength on both the port and starboard sides. To balance your strength and endurance, and to develop your skills evenly, you should periodically change paddling sides while on the water. This is done on command from the sternman by continuing the recovery of your stroke over the bow breastplate, with the tip of the blade extended beyond the bow. As you swing the blade tip out over the bow in the feathered position, the hand on the throat slides up the loom of the paddle, and the grip hand releases the grip and reaches down to the throat. As the recovery reaches position for the catch on the opposite side of the canoe, the hands come to the proper positions on the grip and throat of the paddle. This procedure not only looks good, but it permits the bowman and sternman to maintain their stroke rhythm and pacing; minimizes wind and water resistance; and, when done smoothly, will not upset the trim and balance of the canoe. All of these considerations relate to momentum,

resistance, and wasted effort. Another advantage of this particular method of changing paddling sides is that no water is dripped or slung into the canoe from the blade of the paddle.

Do not change paddling sides to steer or control your canoe. Learn to use the strokes for steering and control. If you are switching back and forth to steer and control your course, you are wasting much effort and sacrificing momentum. You are also displaying your lack of skill and practice.

The bow stroke, quarter sweep, and diagonal draw are done on the starboard side exactly as they are done on the port side of the canoe, except that the left and right hand positions are reversed.

You are now ready to learn the bow strokes that do not produce or maintain forward momentum. When used at the proper time, they are important and useful. These strokes—the hold water, stop, pushaway, pullover, reverse sweep, and backwater—are done the same way on the port and starboard sides of the canoe, except that the activity of the left and right arms is reversed.

On command from the sternman to "hold water" the bowman puts the blade of the paddle deep into the water, even with his kneeling position, with the blade at a right angle to the center line of the canoe; he holds this position. The result is maximum water resistance without either pushing or pulling through the water. The easiest way to hold this position is to hook the thumb of the lower hand over the gunwale to lock in position and provide a pivot point. The hand on the grip then holds the blade in position in the water. If the hold water is done this way, the lower arm does not have to work against the water resistance. The work is transferred to the hand and arm on the grip, which has much greater leverage across the pivot point at the gunwale. If additional "hold" is needed, the grip hand can be pulled back.

If both paddlers hold water while under way, the canoe will rapidly lose its forward motion. It is a good way to slow to a stop. If the sternman is thinking ahead, he will give the "let it run" command, and then give the call to "hold water." This should slow the canoe to a stop just short of the dock or pier or wherever the sternman wants. If the hold water position is maintained while the canoe is stationary, it will reduce the drift and shift of the canoe.

A quick stop is accomplished on command from the sternman. On the command "Stop," the bowman reaches back to the end position of the bow

stroke, catches and pulls forward quickly and hard to the hold water position, and then continues to exert forward pressure with the paddle blade by pulling back on the grip, with the throat of the paddle locked against the gunwale with the thumb of the lower hand. If done effectively, while the sternman does a stop stroke from his position, the canoe should literally "stop on a dime.~’ At the end of the stop maneuver, the hold water position should be maintained.

The pushaway stroke moves the canoe sideways away from the side on which the bowman is paddling. If the bowman does the pushaway while the canoe is stationary, the bow of the canoe will swing away from the side on which the bowman is paddling. If the bowman does the pushaway at the same time that the sternman does the pullover, the canoe will move sideways while maintaining its forward heading. As before, the name of the stroke is descriptive of how it is done.

The catch position for the pushaway begins with the paddle blade deep in the water close against the side of the canoe, even with the kneeling position of the bowman. The blade is turned flat against the side of the canoe, parallel with the center line of the canoe. The "push" of the stroke may be accomplished in either of two ways. With the paddle straight up and down at the side of the canoe, the lower arm holding the throat of the paddle pushes out, with the grip serving as the pivot point. Alternately, from the same catch position, the grip hand can pullback, with the lower arm moving out as the blade travels out from the side of the canoe. The second technique will usually cause the loom of the paddle to contact the gunwale of the canoe and lever across, with the gunwale serving as the pivot point. This levering on the gunwale tends to produce a wear spot on the paddle—and on the canoe, if it is not metal. Also, if you are trying to move silently, you will want to avoid contact between the canoe and the paddle. As you master this particular stroke, you will find that you do the push naturally with a combination of pushing on the throat and pulling on the grip. Whether you use the gunwale for leverage will depend on your circumstances and purpose at the time of the stroke, and your concern about your equipment.

At the end of the push, the blade will be near the surface of the water and should be feathered for either an "in-the-water" recovery or a recovery above the surface of the water. The in-the-water recovery is more efficient and can be done silently. To recover in the water, you do not break the surface of the water with the blade. You feather the blade in the water at the end of

the push by turning the fingers on the grip hand toward the stern and slicing the blade through the water back to the catch position. (You could also feather by turning your grip fingers toward the bow. Do whichever is more comfortable for you.) The push and recovery parts of the stroke follow exactly the same path through the water. At the catchposition, the blade is again turned parallel with the center line of the canoe by rolling the wrist so that the knuckles are pointing to the side.

The out-of-water recovery is done by having the paddle proceed on the push until it breaks out of the water. Keeping the paddle in this position just as it comes out of the water, and with the elbow straight, swing the blade of the paddle back to a position just behind the paddler. At this point, which is approximately the same point where the regular bow stroke begins its recovery, the blade is turned parallel to the center line of the canoe and sliced down and through the water back to the catch position. Obviously, the out-of-water feather and recovery are more complicated, but may allow the paddler to do a more rapid series of pushaway strokes. It will feel awkward, because the feather position is inverted from the normal feather position If you are having difficulty making this feather and recovery, flip the paddle after it breaks the surface of the water and recover with the more comfortable knuckles-down feather position. This means, of course, that the blade will have to do a full 180-degree flip after completing the push part of the stroke. In most circumstances, you will find the in-the-water recovery much easier and more practical. (You do not need to master the out-of-the-water recovery in order to complete the merit badge requirement.)

The pullover is the opposite of the pushaway. As always, the name is descriptive of the stroke. On the pushaway, you were grabbing the water and pushing it away from your canoe. In the pullover, you are going to reach out and grab the water and pull it straight to you. This stroke will move the canoe sideways to the side on which you are paddling.

The catch position for the pullover is with the paddle fully extended, straight out from your paddling position. The "pull" of this stroke starts where the "push" ended on the pushaway stroke: With the pulling side of the blade facing you, catch and pull in with the arm on the throat while the grip hand provides a lever point above the gunwale. The pull ends just before the paddle touches the side of the canoe. At this point, the blade should be deep and just slightly under the canoe. The feather and recovery are done in the water. You feather by turning the fingers on your grip hand toward the stern (or bow, if more comfortable). Recover by pulling back slightly on the grip while pushing out with the arm on the throat of the paddle. Recover straight out from the canoe, slicing through the water to your catch position. End the recovery by turning the grip hand fingers out, and you are ready for your next stroke. Using the gunwale of the canoe for leverage on the recovery will only shorten your reach out to the side of the canoe and reduce the effectiveness of your stroke. You can make an out-of-water recovery by reversing the procedure for the out-of-water recovery on the pushaway, but the in-the-water recovery is recommended.

When the bowman does the pullover at the same time that the sternman does the pushaway, the canoe will move sideways to the side on which the bowman is paddling while maintaining its forward heading. If the bowman alone does the paddling and uses the pullover, the bow of the canoe will circle to the side on which the bowman is paddling.

Tandem pivots are done with the pushaway and pullover strokes. If both bowman and sternman do the pushaway, the canoe will pivot, with the bow circling away from the side on which the bowman is paddling. If the bowman is paddling on the port side, the canoe will pivot clockwise. When both paddlers do the pullover, the canoe pivots with the bow circling toward the side on which the bowman is paddling.

The reverse sweep is not often used in the bow position, as it tends to move the canoe backward, with the stern making a wide circle away from the side on which the bowman is paddling. The reverse sweep is an important stroke when paddling alone, and is useful when paddling in the stern position. It is done in the same manner regardless of the paddling position.

The catch for the reverse sweep in the bow position is at the point where the bow stroke ends. As on all sweep strokes, the blade is turned perpendicular to the surface of the water and sweeps in a wide arc, with one side of the blade down in the water and the other side at the surface. The power part of the reverse sweep travels in a wide arc from the catch position all the way around to the point ahead of the canoe where the bow stroke normally begins. The paddle is then feathered and recovered, following the same arc back to the catch position. During the pull and recovery, the lower elbow should be straight, with the arm on the throat extended as far out to the side as the bowman can reach without overbalancing.

The backwater is a reverse stroke that makes the canoe back up. It is done the same way in both the bow and stern positions. The catch position is at the point where the bow stroke ends its pull. The blade angle is identical to that of the bow stroke—perpendicular to the center line of the canoe. Catch the water and push forward with a stroke that is essentially the opposite of the bow stroke. The lower arm serves primarily as a pivot, while the hand on the grip pulls back to give power to the stroke. The backwater stroke ends near the bow at the point where the bow stroke catches. The feather and recovery are the same as for the reverse sweep.

If the bowman does the backwater stroke alone, the canoe will move backward, but with a tendency to turn the stern away from the side on which the bowman is paddling. When bowman and sternman backwater at the same time, the canoe will track a straight line in reverse.

For various reasons, particularly when paddling for long distances, you and your paddling companion may decide to change places. If the canoe is fully loaded with gear in midship, you should head for shore or shallow water to make the change. If the midship is clear of gear, you can change positions while the canoe is afloat on open water, but remember to use your head—if there is a strong current or wind, go to shore to make your change.

Assuming that the circumstances are good for a change of places on open water, the first rule to remember is that the sternman is in charge. When the decision has been made to change places, the sternman holds water and directs the bowman to stow his equipment. The bowman stows his paddle flat on the bottom of the canoe where it will not trip anyone or get damaged. The next signal from the sternman is to move back to midship. The bowman then comes up from his kneeling or seated position, keeping his weight low and his hands on the gunwales, and steps backward over the thwarts to the midship position of the canoe. He then sits flat on the bottom of the canoe with his legs extended in front of him. Throughout this movement, and while seated, the bowman keeps his weight squarely centered over the keel of the canoe.

When the bowman is settled in the midship, the sternman safely stows his paddle, and gives the command to shift weight. This command should specify in which direction he wants the bowman to shift. On the command to shift.

the bowman moves his weight slightly to the port or starboard of the keel while the sternman shifts his weight in the opposite direction. Now, keeping his weight low and his hands on the gunwales, the sternman rises from his kneeling or seated position and moves forward just to one side of the keel, stepping over the thwarts so that he passes the bowman at midship and proceeds forward to the bow paddling position. When the former sternman is settled in this position, the new sternman gives

the command to shift weight back to the center of the canoe. On command, both people move to reposition their weight over the keel. The new bowman then puts his paddle out in the hold water position.

Making sure that the new bowman maintains his hold water position, the new sternman then rises from his sitting position midships and, again keeping his weight low with his hands on the gunwales, moves back to the stern paddling position. When he is in position and ready, he gives the appropriate command to the bowman and the canoe is again underway.

You have learned a lot about the stern position while learning the bow strokes. You know that the sternman is captain of the ship, with responsibility for maintaining the direction of the canoe, partly by giving stroke commands to the bowman. An experienced sternman paddling on flatwater, however, will rarely need to give a steering command to the bowman, because the sternman can easily control the direction of the canoe using the stern power stroke. The descriptive name for the stern power stroke is the J-stroke. The J stroke is the most important paddling stroke. If the J stroke has been mastered, the rest comes easily.

The stern paddling position gives the paddler greater leverage over the canoe. As a result, if both bowman and sternman are paddling with equal strength using basic power strokes, the canoe will veer to the side on which the bowman is paddling. The J stroke is a steering stroke; it is basically the same as the bow stroke, but slightly modified to correct the tendency of the canoe to turn away from the paddling side of the sternman.

In most ways—such as the catch, feather, and recovery—the J stroke is identical to the bow stroke. It is the stern power stroke. The pull is only slightly different—90 percent of the pull is identical to the bow stroke; it’s the last 10 percent of the pull that makes the difference.

Begin the Jstroke by leaning slightly forward from the waist and catching at a position close to the side of the canoe and as far forward as the sternman can reach without overbalancing. The pull is done by jabbing out with the hand on the grip from approximately the chin of the paddler, while the lower arm swings down and back with the hand on the throat, serving as a pivot point. The blade angle should be perpendicular to the center line of the canoe. The movement is identical to that of the bow stroke up to the point where the lower arm has just passed the straight up and down position. Remember that when the lower arm is in this position, the blade of the paddle is well past the straight up and down position because the grip hand has pushed out and forced the blade back against the water. At this point, the grip hand is turned from the knuckles down position to a thumb down position. This rotation of the grip hand turns the blade perpendicular to the surface of the water. The grip is then pulled slightly across in front of the paddler while the hand on the throat pushes out, forcing the blade away from the canoe and pushing the water sideways from the canoe. If the line of the paddle could be observed from directly overhead while paddling on the port side, it would draw a "J" on the surface of the water. (If paddling on the starboard side, the J would be drawn backward.)

The most common error in trying to learn the J stroke is the tendency to turn the thumb up in order to make the J part of the stroke. When this is done, the paddle releases its hold on the water and the paddler has to press sideways with the opposite side of the paddle. This sacrifices forward momentum and makes extra work for the paddler. What this incorrect maneuver attempts to do is to create a rudder. The principle of the rudder is drag, and that is exactly what is accomplished. It will correct the direction of the canoe, but it breaks the rhythm of the stroke and makes it impossible for the stern-man to match the pace of the bowman unless the bowman also interrupts his rhythm. The net result is a 30—40 percent loss of stroke power. When the J stroke is done correctly, the paddle hold on the water is not lost, but the direction of the pressure shifts from straight back to slightly sideways. The straight elbow on the lower arm is important in the J stroke. If the elbow is bent, the blade is lifted from the water too early, and the J motion is done out of the water. This accomplishes nothing. If the elbow is bent and the blade is kept in the water, it shortens the stroke substantially and sacrifices power.

The J stroke should be done in a smooth motion with the same rhythm and timing as the regular bow stroke. Once you are underway with good forward momentum, it is not necessary to put a J on every stroke. The stern-man watches his course heading and adds the Jto the stroke as it is needed to correct the drift away from his paddling side.

The sternman makes turns underway by varying his J stroke. If he wants to turn the canoe away from the side on which he is paddling, he simply omits the Jfor several strong strokes and accomplishes his turn. If he needs to turn the bow of the canoe toward the side on which he is paddling, he simply exaggerates the J portion of the stroke. An exaggerated or slightly harder sideways action on two or three Jstrokes will bring the bow quickly toward the side on which the sternman is paddling. The sternman can, of course, accomplish the turn even more quickly by calling for the quarter sweep or diagonal draw by the bowman, depending on the direction of the turn. If the bowman continues his steady bow stroke, however, the turns can be made entirely through the effort of the sternman with little difficulty.

If you are not getting the intended result from the J portion of your stroke, you are most likely failing to turn the blade a full 90 degrees for the J. This frequently happens because the grip hand slips or shifts on the grip when the thumb is rolled down. You can practice this motion by simply holding the paddle in front of you, with both arms extended, and turning the wrist of the hand that is on the grip. Watch the blade until you begin to understand exactly what happens to the blade when you turn the grip hand. When turned correctly, both wrists are "humped". Remember, the position of the hand on the grip does not change on any of the tandem paddling strokes.

The second most common error on the Jstroke results from bending the lower arm. Keep that elbow straight and you won’t be shoveling or "air paddling" when you should be using a J to maintain your course.

If the sternman wants to make a quick sharp turn to the side on which he is paddling, he makes a hard full J, bringing the paddle around on a full hook to a position straight out from his side. This will turn the canoe sharply and substantially reduce the forward momentum. If the sternman wants to do a sharp turn in the direction away from his paddling side, he does this with a sweep stroke. The catch for the sweep is the same as for the Jstroke but, as the name implies, the stroke sweeps wide near the surface of the water. The sweep in the stern position is similar to the quarter sweep, but it makes a full half circle back to the farthest aft point that the sternman can reach without losing his balance. A couple of sweep strokes in the stern position will turn the canoe sharply with limited loss of forward momentum.

The other stern strokes used in tandem paddling for stationary maneuvers—pushaway, pullover, and backwater—are the same as those done in the bow position. The hold water and stop procedures are also essentially the same in the stern as in the bow. For the stop, the sternman reaches as far back behind his position as he can, catches the water sharply, and pushes forward with a strong motion to the hold water position.

Changing paddle sides in the stern position follows the same principles as in the bow position, except that the sternman ducks his head and swings the paddle blade over the stern breastplate with the tip beyond the stern.

When paddling with a companion, landing your canoe is simply the launching procedure in reverse.

When landing at a beach or lake shore, you should approach slowly and cautiously in order to avoid running aground or getting upset by an obstruction under the water. As soon as the bow touches bottom in the shallows near the shore, the sternman should brace and steady the canoe with the "post" position while the bowman stows his paddle and steps into the water. Holding the breastplate or gunwale near the bow, the bowman then walks the canoe forward until it touches ground. At this point the sternman also stows his paddle and steps out while the bowman steadies the canoe. If the bowman is able to bring the canoe forward to just off the shore without running aground, he should then brace the canoe and give instructions to the sternman to get out, following the same procedures used when launching except in reverse order. When both men are out of the canoe, one holds the craft while the other removes the gear. The canoe is then removed from the water and stored using the same steps involved in the launch but in reverse order.

If you are landing at a bank where there is a steep drop or retainer wall, the landing procedures are essentially the same as those for a dock or pier. If you are stepping out in unknown waters, or at any place where the bottom of the lake has not been specifically cleared for use as a landing site, be sure you wear appropriate shoes and move very cautiously throughout the landing procedure.

To repeat and emphasize one point: Do not ever drive the canoe up on the shore or beach. Instead, drift up like a feather until you touch bottom.

No matter how skilled and experienced you are as a canoeist, there will be occasions, both deliberate and accidental, where you will go overboard. You must learn and practice the overboard procedures before you find yourself in the water. In this way, you will have experience, knowledge, and confidence when you need it. While practicing these maneuvers, you should work with your companion, under supervision, wearing a PFD, and "fully dressed".

Your clothing should consist of long pants, proper shoes for canoeing, and a long-sleeved shirt. Wear your bathing suit under the clothing. The clothing serves several purposes. First, part of your learning experience will be getting in and out of your canoe wearing the wet clothing, and steadying the capsized canoe while undressing. Second, the clothing protects you from scrapes and scratches while you are learning out-and-in maneuvers. Your clothing need not include anything more than shirt, pants, and shoes, although you should consider that when canoeing in cooler weather you are likely to be wearing considerably more clothing.

Overboard canoeing practice should be done on open water where the shoreline is easily accessible with 25 to 30 feet. Your supervisor or lifeguard should be within 15 to 20 feet of you at all times, and the maximum depth of the water should be 12 feet. There is no need to practice in water deeper than 7 or 8 feet. The practice area must be fully explored in advance to make sure there are no stumps, rocks, or other hazards that might injure someone going overboard from the canoe.

Before you can practice overboard and reentry procedures, you have to get safely out of the canoe. The absolute rule on going overboard is that you never lose contact with the canoe. Begin the procedure by stopping and steadying the canoe, with the sternman giving commands. Paddles should be stowed and all loose gear secured. You and your companion should be sure that no gear or obstruction will catch your feet when you go overboard. On signal from the sternman, both paddlers raise themselves from their kneeling or sitting position, with hands and weight on the gunwales and standing over the keel of the canoe. Your position is tail high. The sternman decides who goes over which side of the canoe, remembering that you go overboard on opposite sides when working with a companion. It is also important that you both move at exactly the same time, otherwise the canoe may flip over when you go overboard. The hand on the gunwale at the side that you are going to go over should be turned with the fingers inside the canoe and holding securely; the hand on the opposite gunwale should be positioned with fingers out, ready to release on the signal to go overboard.

When both paddlers are ready, the sternman gives the "jump" signal. With your weight forward on your hands, hop over the side of the canoe with both feet, keeping your feet and ankles close together. If your feet are apart, you risk hanging a heel or ankle on the gunwale as you go over. As your feet clear the gunwale, release the gunwale on the opposite side of the canoe and hang on tight with the hand on the side you’re going over. (If done correctly, you will hit the water tail first.)

If you go overboard correctly, the canoe remains upright and steady, you and your companion are in the water looking toward the stern of the canoe, and you do not get your hair wet. If you fail to hold on to the canoe as you go over and enter the water; you will go under the water and the canoe will drift away from you. If one paddler loses his grip and the other holds on, the canoe may capsize.

Getting back in is not at all tricky if you and your companion work together. The easiest maneuver puts you both in the canoe at exactly the same time. With both hands on the gunwale, position yourselves so that one person is just forward of midship and the other is just aft of midship. On signal, making sure you move at the same time, both of you should kick sharply in the water (use a scissor kick or whatever works for you) to pull yourself up on the gunwale to the point where your arms are straight down and the gunwale is just below your waist. At this point, it’s like standing with your hands on a table, looking at your friend who is across from you and slightly to one side. If one of you is unable to pull up, or slips off, or falls backward, the other should immediately drop back into the water to prevent the canoe from capsizing. You are able to pull your weight up on one side of the canoe only because your companion is doing the same on the other side, thus keeping the canoe balanced.

If you have both made it to this position up on the gunwale, the rest is easy. Simply lean into the canoe and roll over so that you fall in tail first, landing on the bottom of the canoe. If you have done this correctly, you end up sitting on the keel with your knees bent over the gunwale and your feet hanging outside the canoe over the water. You can now bring your feet in and return to your paddling positions. Remember, be conscious of the movement of your companion. The best approach is for one man to give commands while the other man responds. This assures that you don’t accidentally shift your weight in the same direction and capsize the canoe.

If one of you is unable to pull up on the gunwale for reentry, you can crawl in one at a time. One man stays in the water, hanging on the gunwale, while the person that is having difficulty crawls over the side by whatever means. The man in the water can pull down or push up slightly on the gunwale to assist his companion. After the less agile man is in the canoe, he helps his companion by leaning to the side away from his companion to balance the canoe while reentry is completed. Sculling with the paddle can also help to balance the canoe. Although this "one at a time" reentry may require a little less in the way of agility, it takes much more time and effort. The other method is preferred and recommended.

If, in getting out and back into the canoe, you have taken on more than an inch of water, you need more practice. Water in the bottom of your canoe will affect your paddling as the water shifts and runs inside the canoe. The more water you have sloshing around, the more difficult it is to keep your trim and balance.

There will also be times when your canoe will capsize and fill with water. The proper procedures in this situation must also be learned and practiced. To safely capsize your canoe for practice, go through the same preliminary procedures that you did when preparing to go overboard, up to the point where you are standing over the keel of the canoe with your hands and weight on the gunwales. This is the "ready" position.

On signal to capsize, you and your companion lean slowly toward the same side, with your weight pressing down on the gunwale on the side to which you are leaning while pulling up slightly on the opposite gunwale. The canoe will roll up on its side and begin to take water over the gunwale. With practice, you can learn to ride the canoe slowly down sideways until it is completely filled and then levels itself. The usual result is that, as the canoe fills, the high side will roll over, dumping the paddlers in the water. As the canoe begins to fill and roll, release your hold on the gunwale on the low side of the canoe, while holding tightly to the gunwale on the high side. If the canoe rolls over on top of you, simply pull yourself to the outside with the hand that continues to maintain contact with the gunwale.

As soon as the canoe is capsized, and you are in the water, the canoe will have a tendency to right itself even though it is filled with water. Without losing contact with the canoe, allow it to right itself and rise to the surface of the water. Check to make sure your companion is all right and is holding securely to the canoe, as you are. You cannot both hang on to the same side, as this will cause the canoe to roll. Position yourselves on opposite sides of the canoe facing each other at midship.

While hanging on to the canoe, check to see that all gear is still secured and will not interfere with getting into the capsized canoe. If there is gear floating free that you can reach without releasing the canoe, it can be put back in the canoe. Do not release the canoe and swim to recover floating gear.

Even though the canoe is capsized, you need to get back in and paddle safely to shore. You and your companion can move at the same time to slide over the side of the canoe and roll in, bottom first. You will quickly discover, however, that a capsized canoe will roll over even more easily than one floating. Another way to reenter a capsized canoe is for one companion to remain low in the water and steady the canoe by holding on to the gunwale, while the other gets in. Then the person in the canoe leans to the opposite side to balance the canoe while his companion crawls in.

Once you are in a capsized canoe, you must sit flat on the bottom, directly over the keel, with your legs spread wide in order to get your center of gravity low enough to prevent the canoe from rolling over and throwing you out. The position for tandem-paddling a capsized canoe is for the paddlers to sit facing each other, with their feet near the center of the canoe and their backs against the paddling thwarts or seats. This helps not only with stability and paddling, but it also enables the paddlers to watch in all directions for oncoming craft. Remember that a capsized canoe is not easily seen on the water, and you need to watch carefully and be quick to signal if another boat is coming your way. Don’t get run over! A paddle waving overhead can be an effective signal.

You can make forward progress sitting in a capsized canoe by using your paddle, or by paddling with your hands. Use the paddle by holding it at the grip and throat, reaching straight out with both arms extended, dipping the entire paddle just below the surface with the blade perpendicular to the water and pulling it toward you. While one companion pulls in this fashion, the other reverses the motion by starting the paddle against his chest and pushing. To change your direction, hold the grip close against your chest and sweep wide with the blade of the paddle. You can do a forward or reverse sweep depending on which direction you want to turn. By sweeping in coordination, tandem paddlers can pivot in place.

You can easily hand-paddle a capsized canoe by using your hands to pull or push the water. Sweep your hands just below the surface of the water similar to what you would do on the breaststroke or elementary backstroke. To turn while hand-paddling, sweep forward with one hand on the side you want to turn away from. Backwater with both hands to slow or stop.

It is not easy to get a capsized canoe moving, but once you are moving you will develop forward momentum even though you are moving slowly through water. This means that it will not be easy to stop suddenly because the weight of the water will carry your canoe forward with considerable force, even when you are backpaddling and trying to stop. For this reason, remember to backwater and stop your capsized canoe well short of where you want to land at the shore or dock.

When you reach your stopping place near shore, go overboard carefully, and at the same time, so as not to roll your canoe over. Walk it to shore. If you are not able to get close enough to stand up, get out carefully while maintaining contact with the canoe, and tow the canoe the last few feet while swimming. One swimmer should hang on to the gunwale near the bow of the canoe and swim with a modified sidestroke, with his upper hand on the gunwale. The other companion should get just behind the stern and push, using the whip kick, with both hands on the stern. Another option is for the swimmer at the stern to use a sidestroke, with his upper hand pushing on the stern or holding the gunwale near the stern of the canoe.

There are several ways to empty a capsized canoe. First, while standing beside the canoe, remove the gear and place it out of the water. One person should stay with the canoe while the other carries the gear to shore. When the canoe is ready to be emptied, move it away from shore until you are standing approximately waist deep in water. With you and your companion standing on the same side of the capsized canoe, roll it over on top of you by pushing down on the near gunwale and pulling the far gunwale up over you. You will then be squatting slightly in the air pocket under the canoe. With hands on the gunwales and thwart or seat resting on your shoulders, you and your companion can stand up on signal, lifting the canoe clear of the water. If you will lean it slightly as you stand to break the airlock, it will be easier to lift. If the ends of the canoe do not quite clear the water when you stand, you can walk carefully toward shore until clear, or raise the canoe higher by extending your arms over your head. After the water has drained from the canoe, raise one side high by extending one arm upward and let the canoe roll gently over onto its bottom on top of the water beside you. (Before you begin to roll the canoe, agree with your companion on which way the canoe will roll.)

If you and your companion are not able to lift the canoe completely clear of the water, or if the bottom is too rough or the area too shallow for this to be safely done, another method is to move the canoe into shallow water where one end can be rested on the bottom of the lake with the canoe upside down. Then you and your companion stand at the end in the deeper water, facing each other on opposite sides of the canoe, and lift up using the bottom of the lake to support the other end. After the canoe has been lifted and drained, roll it carefully toward one person and set it gently down on the water. If you and your companion can lift the canoe, but cannot get under it because of shallow water, you can simply roll it upside down, stand at opposite ends, and lift.

To empty a capsized canoe on apier or dock, turn the capsized canoe perpendicular to the side of the dock. With you and your companion kneeling or lying down on the dock facing each other, roll the canoe over and lift one end up to set it on the edge of the dock. Then, while kneeling or standing, you and your companion move the canoe hand-over-hand until it is completely up on the dock and free of the water. After the canoe has drained, roll it over carefully toward one companion and then place it back in the water hand-over-hand. (This procedure is similar to emptying a canoe in a canoe-over-canoe rescue on the open water.)

A canoe is not the best rescue craft, but it can be used to assist other canoeists who have capsized. Follow the steps explained with the illustration. When using your canoe for an actual rescue, remember three important points: (1) the welfare of the people—not their canoe and equipment—is your first concern; (2) approach the people cautiously (keeping their canoe between you and them) and make sure they are not too panicky to follow your instructions; and (3) call out to quiet and reassure the victims, and tell them to hold on to their canoe.

Ignore the free-floating gear until you have the people safely back in their canoe. You can then retrieve floating gear and return it to them. You can approach a capsized canoe from either side, but if there is any wind, approach from the downwind side. Before approaching the capsized canoe, instruct the people in the water to move to the side of the canoe opposite the one you’re going to approach. If there are two people in the water, they should be holding on to the gunwale on the same side of the canoe when you make your approach.

A canoe is not recommended for drowning rescues, but you can easily provide assistance to a tired swimmer. Remember that a tired swimmer is not a victim of a swimming emergency. A tired swimmer is just what the name implies—an individual who has been swimming and has begun to approach exhaustion, but who is still rational, under control, and maintaining himself in the water. What he needs is assistance and reassurance that he is not in danger.

If, when paddling, you see that a swimmer in open, deep water is getting tired, your first action is to call to the individual and ask him if he needs assistance. If there is a positive response, talk to the swimmer to calm and reassure him while you approach cautiously in your canoe. Do not paddle up to the swimmer, but stop 8 to 10 feet away and position your canoe so that the swimmer is directly out from your paddling position. Extend the paddle to the swimmer so that the paddle is between the swimmer and the canoe and the swimmer can grasp the paddle. Now explain to the swimmer exactly what you want him to do. Tell him to move to the stern of your canoe and hold on to the gunwales without pulling down. When the swimmer fully understands what you are going to do and what is expected of him, move him toward the stern of your canoe by swinging your paddle back. When the swimmer is in position, simply tow him by paddling to the nearest shore or shallow area. When the swimmer can stand, you should ask him to release the canoe and walk out of the water while you observe.

If the swimmer is too tired to hang on to your canoe, you can carefully capsize and help the swimmer into the bottom of the capsized canoe. Seat yourself in the capsized canoe properly and hand paddle to the nearest shore or shallow area. If you capsize while attempting to help a tired swimmer, you can still assist by using the capsized canoe procedure.